Ecn 3000 Homework

Harris ECN 3000 Homework #1b. Use the following information to answer questions 1-13 below. Two countries, Athens and Troy, produce two goods, ships and food, according to the following production functions: 1 ship = 4 capital + 2 labor 1 food = 1 capital + 3 labor. Athens has 200 units of capital and 100 units of labor available to produce ships and food. Troy has 100 units of capital and 150 units of labor available to produce ships and food. 1. Which good is capital intensive in production? Ship 2. Which good is labor intensive in production? Food 3.In which country is capital relatively abundant? Athens 4. In which country is labor relatively abundant? Tory 5. Based on your answers to 1 – 4 and using the Heckscher-Ohlin hypothesis, which country should specialize in the production of which good? Why? According to Heckscher-Ohlin hypothesis, countries will export products that utilize their abundant and cheap factors of production and import products that utilize the countr ies' scarce factors. As I said before, Athens is capital relatively abundant, Tory is labor relatively abundant. When a thing is abundant, it becomes cheap.Thus, Athens should specialize in the production of ship, and Troy should specialize in the production of food. 6. Calculate the limits of production for Athens and Troy. The limits of production for Athens: 200/4=50 ships or 100/3=33 foods. The limits of production for Troy: 100/4=25 ships or 150/3=50 foods. 7. Calculate the domestic terms of trade for Athens and Troy in terms of 1 ship. . 8. Based on your answer to question 7, which country should specialize in the production of which good? Why? Athens’ MRT=0. 66 and Troy’s MRT=2. So we can know Athens has comparative advantage in ship, and Troy has comparative advantage in food.Thus, Athens should specialize in the production of ship, and Troy should specialize in the production of food. 9. Draw the production possibilities curves for each country based on your a nswers to questions 6 and 7. Athens 42 33 PPC CPC 0 25 50 Ships Tory 50 25 CPC PPC 0 25 38 50 Ships 10. Supposing that Athens and Troy agree to trade ships and food at an international terms of trade of 1, what observation can you make about their relative demands for ships and food?Which country experiences the greater gains from trade? 1 ship is exchanged 1 food on condition that they agree to trade ships and food at an international term of trade of 1. Athens should trade 12. 5 ships to Troy, and Troy should trade 8. 5 foods to Athens. Troy will experience the greater gains from trade. 11. Draw the consumption possibilities curve for each country on the same graph you drew for question 9. 12. Suppose Athens wants to consume only 25 ships. How many food will it be able to consume? How many ships and how many food would Troy be able to consume?If Athens wants to consume only 25 ships, 58 foods will it be able to consume. 50 ships, 25 foods should Troy be able to consume. 13. Now, a ssume that only Athens discovers a new technology that allows it to produce ships using 1. 5 capital and 1 labor. What would be the effect on the pattern of trade between the two countries? Explain. Based on your assumption, Athens will decrease the cost of the ships. Then, the limits of production for Athens: 100/1=100 ships or 100/3=33 foods. Athens maybe experiences the greater gains from trade.However, the demand of Troy cannot be ignored. Troy may not consume that many ships. 14. Suppose that instead of trading goods, Athens and Troy decide to trade 50 units of Athens capital for 25 units of Troy’s labor. How would the countries’ relative welfare be affected? If this supposition were true, after Athens and Troy trade capital and labor, they will have same number of capital and labor. Then, the trades between these two countries are unnecessary. They can produce their own goods. ———————– Foods Foods

Critical Essay †“By any other name” by John Lavin Essay

In the short story â€Å"By any other name† written by John Lavin, the theme of relationships is developed throughout the story by Lavin’s choice of language and descriptive writing. By looking at Lavin’s chosen setting and characterisation in the story, I will examine the theme of relationships. The story is set in the slums of Glasgow around the 1930’s is about a boy called Peter and his fight for survival with his parents in very poor conditions. To examine the theme of relationships it is important to examine the setting of the story. The setting Lavin created and how they get on with each other affect the characters. Due to a rapid growth in urbanisation, overcrowding and poor living conditions were very common. â€Å"Disease and death and want stalked through the sunless hovels† The use of personification here offers the reader an insight into the terrible conditions that many had to endure this period of time. It also shows how poor the family were. â€Å"Smell of cats and sickness and primitive drainage† This creates a very filthy image of the area they lived in. It also gives the reader the shock factor. I also feel that it puts a very hard strain of the family has they have to live in such horrible conditions. Peter does not get on very well with his father and they don’t have a very good relationship with each other. â€Å"He was always drunk just as I was always hungry† This shows that Peter’s father spent all the family’s money on drink and since they had no money they could not afford to put no food on the table. I also feel this shows that Peter had no respect for his father and also resented that his dad spent all the money. â€Å"I still fell pity I had for him, the only emotion he ever stirred in me† This gives the me the reader an insight into the feelings Peter had for his father. Peter I think felt sorry but had no real admiration for him, as he was always drunk and never really cared for him. â€Å"A mangled thing† Here Peter is talking about his father. This is a very impersonal thing to say about your father but this was true in Peter’s case. I also feel this shows that Peter lack any sort of emotion. Peter had a very good relationship with his mother. â€Å"My mother had the loveliest hair I ever saw† I feel this shows that Peter shows a lot of affection for his mother and that he loves her dearly. He also I think admires her for putting up with his father and the terrible living conditions that they had to endure. â€Å"Grey autumn day† I feel that his sets the tone for his mother’s death as she died from TB. I also think that his conveys very well how Peter feels, as he is now all alone as he does not get on with his father. Peter’s parents did not have a very good relationship. â€Å"They seldom spoke† They did not have any real conversations. The short sentence I feel sums up and emphasize how poor their relationship was. I think John Lavin has done a great job of convey the theme of relationships between family members.   

Fashion

She replaced the corset with lighter clothing that wasn't so restrictive. Throughout the years dresses kept getting shorter and the backs lower. â€Å"By 1 925 dresses were the shortest in history – an act of the devil, some thought. † Many people were so outraged that they passed laws in the states of Ohio and Utah that the hem length of ladies gowns had to be seven inches from the floor but these responses from mature adults simply increased young women's fondness for their short skirts and cosmetics. After all, what fun is it to rebel if nobody notices or cares? But what are some major reasons for this changes in women fashion?The first one is that after the war women continued to work outside their home, so the clothes had to be altered to allow for an ease of movement. Also with the lack of men due to the war, women began wearing more alluring clothing to attract a husband. The ratification of the 1 9th Amendment also played a major role as women soon began wearing loose pantsuits called ‘pajama suits', a direct result of the newly gained right to vote and the strong cries for further female empowerment. Probably, one of the first images that pops into your head when you hear the word 1 sass fashion is the Flapper which is the symbol of he roaring twenties.It embodied the decades modern fashion elements such as short sleek hair, a short shapeless dress, a flat chest, and exposed limbs. Flappers also had a reputation that added to their style as well; they smoked from long cigarette holders, applied makeup in public and danced to jazz with reckless abandonment of propriety. Men of this time wore suits, day suits, formal suits, all different kinds of suits. Along with their suits, they wore a hat according to their class in society: the upper class wore top hats, middle class wore a fedora, and the working class wore a flat cap or no cap at all.TO omelet their ensemble they wore black patent leather shoes or saddle shoes. As well as the c lassic suit, flannel, twill, knickerbockers, and sweaters were a more commonly seen casual wear among men of all ages, Then around 1925 â€Å"Oxford bags† were introduced to the public, after being worn as a kind of uniform for Oxford University students. This style grew and grew and before you knew all the young men were wearing them. As the decade progressed, the automobile increasingly became another definer of status and social class in America, both for young people and their parents. Henry Ford's Model T, which dominated the U. S. Reek until it went out of production in 1 927, gave middle-class and even lower-middle-class citizens affordable, reliable transportation. The quintessential expression of American energy and optimism in the 1 sass was the skyscraper, the great tower that aspired toward heaven and dominated the earth (rather, the urban streets) below. Fashion What is Fashion All About? What is it with fashion? It's something that we all deal with everyday. From birth to old age, the way we dress says something about each and every one of us. Even those people who say that fashion doesn't matter to them, still have to choose what they wear every day. Fashion says a lot about who we are and how we are feeling. One thing that is guaranteed is that fashion is always changing. We are always being subjected to new trends everywhere we look! Magazines, what the stars are wearing, movies and television, and people that we are in contact with on a daily basis may influence what is â€Å"hot† and what is â€Å"not†.A little known fact about fashion is that after the movie, Men In Black premiered, the sunglass company, Ray Ban, practically doubled its sales. Many people have a hand in the fashion trends of today, and we wonder who really does dictate fashion trends. Rock Musicians, TV Stars, and Supermodels are among the trendsetters. In today's society, political figures and royalty, such as Duchess Kate, are among those we watch to see what they are wearing. Princess Diana was also considered a fashion icon, what she wore and where she wore it was daily news.Even hundreds of years ago women would pour over fashion magazines for insight into the clothes that were trending at that time. King Louis XIV was a well known fashion connoisseur. His tastes ran toward the extreme from velvets and rich brocades, to handmade laces! The kind of clothes you wear reveal a lot about a person. Sometimes it reveals the â€Å"group† you are in. For instance in high school these groups have names like â€Å"Goth,† â€Å"skaters,† â€Å"popular,† and the â€Å"outsiders†. This is a stereotype, but it happens in high schools all over the country.If you were to look at a person you might be able to tell what his occupation as by the way he dressed. For instance, a person wearing a suit and tie might be a businessman, a person dressed all in white might be a painter, or a person with grungy clothes, piercing and tattoos might be a Goth or a pithead. The way we look at a person because of the way they might dress may influence whether we accept or reject them. This is part of the way society is today. The Why and How The fashion industry is a huge and booming business.There are millions of people involved in different aspects of the business, from buying and selling to production. Everyday millions of people design, produce, and transport clothing to stores all over the world. Advertising is a key element when it comes to dictating what is hot and what is not. We see ads for clothing everywhere. The ads are in magazines and newspapers, on television, billboards and even on buses! It is next to impossible to predict what is going to be in fashion at any one time. No one can say exactly why the mini skirt and high boots worn in the ass's became so popular, or how blue Scares becam e so popular is the U. S.Even the hip-hop style that originated n the Bronx made it to the Haute Couture big fashion shows of London and Rome! Fashion is a fickle thing and is the product of people wanting to look good and also conform to what is considered the norm in today's society. Noted International Fashion Editor, Cynthia Durian defines fashion as a state of mind, a spirit, an extension of one's self. I think that puts it into perspective. â€Å"The apparel oft proclaims the man. † -Shakespeare, Hamlet Many thanks to Courtney and to Cody McKee, who again was my revision buddy. They both made very helpful suggestions that allowed me to write a better essay. Fashion The changing dynamics of the fashion industry have forced retailers to desire low cost and flexibility in design, quality, and speed to market, key strategies to maintain a profitable position in the increasingly demanding market. This article reviews the literature on changes that have happened in the fashion apparel industry since the sass, highlighting the emergence of a concept of throwaway or fast fashion. It describes fast fashion from a supplier as well as a consumer's perspective, and draws attention to several potential research issues.Keywords: fast fashion; supplier; consumer; quick response; fashion season The fashion apparel industry has significantly evolved, particularly over the last 20 years, when the boundaries of the industry started to expand (Decline and Minima 999). The changing dynamics of the fashion industry since then, such as the fading of mass production, increase in number of fashion seasons, and modified structural characteristics in the supply chain hav e forced retailers to desire low cost and flexibility in design, quality, delivery and speed to market (Doyle, Moore, and Morgan 2006).In addition to speed to market and design, marketing and capital investment have also been identified as the driving forces of competitiveness in the fashion apparel industry (Sinai 2006). Franks (2000) suggested ‘sense and respond' as the key tracery to maintain a profitable position in the increasingly dynamic and demanding market. A key defining characteristic of rapid responsiveness and greater flexibility, in this context, is to maintain closer relationships between suppliers and buyers (Wheelwright and Clark 1992).Looking at the basic structure of the fashion industry until the late sass, traditionally fashion apparel retailers used their capability of forecasting consumer demand and fashion trends (known as ready-to-wear) long before the actual time of consumption in order to compete in the market (Coercing 2001). However, recent years h ave seen fashion retailers compete with others by ensuring speed to market with their ability to provide rapidly the fashion trends revealed by fashion shows and runways.According to Tapping (1999), such retailers could be credited with the adoption of ‘quick fashion' that is an outcome of an unplanned process on the reduced time gap between designing and consumption on a seasonal basis. *Corresponding author. Email: [email  protected] Du SINS 0959-3969 pant/less 1466-4402 online 2010 Taylor & Francis DOE 10. 1080/09593960903498300 towpath. Thenceforward corn 166 V. Bradshaw and A. FurthestToday's fashion market is highly competitive and the constant need to ‘refresh' product ranges meaner that there is an inevitable move by many retailers to extend the number of ‘seasons', that is, the frequency with which the entire merchandise within a store is changed. With the emergence of small collections of merchandise, fashion retailers are encouraging consumers to visit their stores more frequently with the idea of ‘Here Today, Gone Tomorrow. This indicates a shorter life cycle and higher profit margins from the sale of fast selling merchandise, skipping the markdown process altogether (Sydney 2008).In addition, desire to have variety and instant gratification with price mavens is motivating consumers to prefer retailers such as Ezra and H (National Post 2009). Several studies have examined various aspects of the buyer-supplier relationship with quick or fast fashion, such as the apparel design process relative to quick response (Formal and Venial 1996), the role of the supplier in fast moving fashion (Doyle, Moore, and Morgan 2006), buyer behavior (Bruce and Daly 2006), and financial performance (Hayes and Jones 2006).However, there appears to be a gap in the literature focusing on the overall concept f fast fashion' that has emerged in the fashion industry from a consumer perspective. Among numerous studies on fast fashion, only a few stud ies have focused on the consumer aspects that drive the changes in the fashion industry (for example, Barnes and Lea-Greenwood 2006). The purpose of this paper is to explore the changes that have occurred in the fashion apparel industry in the past two decades and attempt to understand how fast fashion emerged to the extent that it is today.Specifically, the study examines the changes in the fashion apparel industry leading to the evolution of throwaway or fast fashion'. A brief review of the literature serves to systematize and appraise the existing work. This study further attempts to align the research capabilities with market growth potential for fast fashion and proposes different venues for conducting research to acquire a better understanding of fast fashion as a consumer-driven approach, not only supplier-driven.Overview of the fashion apparel industry In the course of the last two decades, the fashion apparel industry across the globe has undergone profound transformation d ue to various changes in the business environment. To understand the areas for research n fast fashion for the future, it is important to consider how it has evolved. The following sections discuss the changes that have occurred in the fashion industry since the sass.Fading of mass production Until the mid sass, success in the fashion industry was based on low cost mass production of standardized styles that did not change frequently due to the design restrictions of the factories, such as Levies 501 Scares and a man's white shirt, although there were exceptional cases of rapid changing haute couture (Brooks 1979). Apparently, consumers during that time ere less sensitive toward style and fashion, and preferred basic apparel. Bailey and Etcher (1992) reported a sudden increase in the import of fashion oriented apparel for women as compared to the standardized apparel in the sass.The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research 167 This reduced the demand for cl assic though simple apparel as consumers started becoming more fashion-conscious (Bailey 2001). For instance, the women's legwarmer industry introduced colors and textures to basic hosiery to coordinate with every outfit (Donnelley 1996). Unfortunately, this change in fashion oriented apparel undistributed to an increase in mark-downs in the market, which became necessary due to the failure to sell fashion apparel during the forecasted season (TOT 1987).This argument was further supported by Malone (1998, 1999) who provided evidence that mass production of fashion products was not a solution to gain profits in the fashion business. Fashion seasons As fashion is considered to be a temporary cyclical phenomena adopted by consumers for a particular time (Spoolers 1979), it becomes evident that the life cycle for fashion is quite small. Since the sass, a typical life yes for fashion apparel had four stages: introduction and adoption by fashion leaders; growth and increase in public acce ptance; mass conformity (maturation); and finally the decline and obsolescence of fashion.Also, the fashion calendar during this time was primarily based on the fabric exhibitions, fashion shows and trade fairs, that consisted of the basic pattern of Spring/Summer and Audiometer ranges which typically resulted in developing a seasonal range in one full year. However, towards the beginning of the sass, retailers started focusing on expanding their product range with updated products and faster responsiveness to the newness' of the fashion trends; and providing ‘refreshing' products instead of only cost efficiencies for manufacturing (Barnes and Lea-Greenwood 2006; Hines 2001; Hoffman 2007).In order to increase the variety of fashion apparel in the market, the concept of adding more phases to the existing seasons (that is, the period of time during which fashion products are sold) in a fashion calendar came into existence. The addition of 3 to 5 mid-seasons forced immense pressu re on suppliers to deliver fashion apparel in smaller batches with reduced lead time (Tyler, Heeled, and Bahamas 2006).For instance, Liz Collarbone developed six seasons instead of Just two (Bailey 2001). These changes to the number of mid-seasons arose partly from the changes in consumers' lifestyles and partly from the need to satisfy consumers' demand for fashion clothing for specific occasions. Structural characteristics Towards the late sass, the fashion apparel industry was dominated by several large retailers which increased the competition levels in the market (Barnes and Legendary 2006).In order to survive the competition, other fashion apparel retailers switched from product-driven to buyer-driven chains, developed alliances with suppliers in efferent markets, and promoted their distinctive brands (Tyler, Heeled, and Bahamas 2006). This resulted in an increase of profits from unique combinations of high-value research, design, sales and marketing that would allow them and the manufacturers to act strategically by linking with overseas factories (Grief 1999, 43).Tyler, Heeled, and Bahamas (2006) illustrated that the fashion apparel industry developed an infrastructure around the late sass with an emphasis on promoting responsiveness (quick response) through reduced lead times, along 168 with maintaining low costs. Hereafter, the phenomena of sourcing manufacturing ND processes in fashion apparel industry to offshore places with low labor costs became a trend, thereby resulting in a substantial cost advantage.Despite the merits of outsourcing, it led to significantly longer lead times, complicated supply chains due to geographic distances, inconsistency and variability in processes at both ends of the chain, and complex import/export procedures (Bristle, Squished, and Frito 2003; Bruce and Daly 2006). In fact, the idea of cost savings through outsourcing manufacturing to low wage nations became deceptive as the savings sometimes were significantly low compared with the cost of obsolescence, forced mark-downs, and inventory carrying costs (Christopher, Lawson, and Peck 2004).Tyler, Heeled, and Bahamas (2006) highlighted product development as the weakness for the longer lead times to deliver fashion apparel to point-of-sale to consumers. As further explained, they illustrated that all the key players in a supply chain (that is, fashion and textile designer, retail buyer and manufacturers) worked in sequence in order to contribute their role, resulting in excessive costs, lack of effective communication and reworks due to inaccurate product developments.Furthermore, instead of translating the trends into the market quickly, fashion retailers failed to sell the merchandise during the appropriate season, adversely impacting the profits (Frito, May, and Straighten 1995). Not surprisingly, the situation became worse due to the rapid changing lifestyles and consumers' choices for fashion and clothing in the market. All these shortcoming s forced the industry toward restructuring in order to improve their operational performance (Tapping 2006).Some of the examples of restructuring that emerged around the sass include Just-in-time techniques and quick a response tit shorter lead times. For example, the number of fashion apparel retailers in the USA that started implementing a quick response (CRY) strategy grew from 60% to 72% from 1994 to 1995 Cones 1995). In recent years, these changes in the fashion apparel industry in the USA in terms of outsourcing manufacturing to low wage countries and demand-driven flexible supply chains have shown that quick responsiveness is possible even in the presence of long physical distances.Fast fashion Fashion is defined as an expression that is widely accepted by a group of people over time and as been characterized by several marketing factors such as low predictability, high impulse purchase, shorter life cycle, and high volatility of market demand (Fernier and Sparks 1998). Thus, in order to be profitable in the industry, fashion apparel retailers need to take the ‘speed to market' approach to capitalize on fashion that is not in the stores of their competitors.It has been further emphasized that market responsiveness and agility through rapid incorporation of consumer preferences into the design process in product development increases the profit margins for retailers (Christopher, Lawson, and Peck 2004). Looking at history, fashion runways and fashion shows were the biggest inspiration for the fashion industry. Along with this, these trend shows were primarily restricted to designers, buyers and other fashion managers.However from 1999 onwards, fashion shows and catwalks became a public phenomenon, where photographs of the recent fashion shows could be seen in magazines and on the web leading to demystification of the fashion process (Sydney 2008). As a result, fashion- 169 conscious consumers were exposed to exclusive designs and styles inspired fr om runways. Retailers such as Ezra, H, Mango, New Look, and Top Shop were adopting such designs rapidly to attract consumers and introduce interpretations of the runway designs to the stores in a minimum of three to five weeks (Barnes and Lea-Greenwood 2006).Drawing on the foundations of quick responsiveness, the fashion apparel industry shifted from forecasting future trends to using real-time data to understand the needs and desires of the consumers Jackson 2001). The inability to accurately forecast or predict future trends (Christopher, Lawson, and Peck 2004) or failure to quickly imitate and produce fashion apparel as seen on runways (Richardson 1996) can lead to risk associated with longer lead times and once failure to attract facetiousness's consumers.Using real-time data can eliminate this possible risk. United Kingdom retailers The UK fashion industry has been widely acknowledged to have initiated this unique strategy in the fashion industry (Barnes and Lea-Greenwood 2006) . Since its beginning, the fashion apparel industry has been characterized by high levels of dominance by large retailers in the I-J with inflexible supply chains (Hines and Bruce 2001). Around the sass, apparel manufacturers and retailers, primarily from the I-J witnessed price pressure from the strong players in the market.In order to stay in competition, I-J retailers such as New Look and George shifted sourcing of merchandise to the Far East for a low cost advantage. In doing so, supply chains became more complex due to extensive geographical distance, thereby forcing these retailers to introduce practices such as just-in-time TIT), computer integrated manufacturing (COM), total quality management (TTS) in manufacturing along with emphasis on shorter supply lines and quick response in the market (Bruce, Daly, and Towers 2004).As an outcome, retailers in the I-J started providing increased variety and fashionably to their customers, peeping in mind the low cost of the merchandise . In addition, they also added mid- season purchasing to their previous two-season calendars, resulting in providing high fashion at a low price throwaway market'. Since then the throwaway market' (now called fast fashion) has become a trend or norm (Tokomak, Wrigley, and Guzzling 2008). In sum, the concentrated UK fashion † market resulted in street fashion as an attempt to gain a competitive edge along with market share through speed to market (Bristle and Breather 1998).The following sections provide supplier and consumer perspectives in regard to fast fashion. Fast fashion from the supplier perspective Apparel markets have become more varied and faster-changing in the present retail environment. The development of new, quick fashion appears symptomatic of the transition from a production-driven to a market-driven approach in the fashion apparel industry. Retailers have started realizing that flexibility and rapid responsiveness to the market are the areas that are most imp ortant in today's market.During the past two decades, the fashion apparel industry has received increased attention in the context of buyer-supplier relationships, and quick espouse and 170 supply chain management to gain a competitive edge in the market (Crew and Davenport 1991; Frito, May, and Straighten 1995; Shoal, Perry, and Pratt 1998; Perry and Shoal 2000). In academic study, fast fashion has been researched from the perspective of a business model with a quick response strategy to reduce production times (Bailey 2001).Literature on fast fashion reflects association with pressure on lead-time reduction in an organization and coordination with various players in the supply chain (Barnes and Lea-Greenwood 2006; Weenies 1999). The obsolete long- eying cycles for many fashion retailers has forced them to improve responsiveness in reduced time, resulting in an introduction of several practices in the fashion industry that describe shorter, more flexible supply chains such as quick response (Fernier and Gamma 2004), Just-in-time (Bruce, Daly, and Towers 2004) and agile supply chains (Bruce, Daly, and Towers 2004; Christopher, Lawson, and Peck 2004).In order to improve efficiency in the demand-driven market, these practices have often been related to vertical integration focusing on collaboration, information sharing and rust between entities in a supply chain (Bristle, Squished, and Frito 2003). In addition, improvements in communication between retailers and producers through technology such as computer-designing (CAD) and electronic data interchange (DEED') have contributed to shortening lead times (Bruce, Daly, and Towers 2004).Fast fashion from a consumer perspective Consumers are becoming more demanding and fashion savvy which is forcing fashion retailers to provide the right product at the right time in the market – in other words, provide quick (fast) fashion (The Economist 2005). As the consumer market is fragmented in terms of consumption patt erns, fast fashion is gaining in importance among consumers. With such developments, researchers should identify the full spectrum of consumer behavior towards fast fashion.The literature on fast fashion highlights various aspects of supply chain management, supported by supply chain theory to improve the business model of fashion retailers. It is worth noting that not many studies have addressed fast fashion as a consumer-driven approach, leaving this an under- researched area. Information and trends are moving around the globe at erroneous speeds, resulting in consumers' ability to have more options and thus shop more often (Hoffman 2007).Changes in lifestyle due to coloratura factors and a need for uniqueness forces fashion retailers to renew merchandise constantly to deal with the growing competition in the market (Spoolers and Burns 1994). The constant, varying demands by consumers has impacted the process of forecasting and product planning shifting; towards replicating famous designs and styles from fashion magazines and fashion shows in small quantities more frequently (Christopher, Lawson, and Peck 2004). The perception of throwaway fashion varies mongo different generations.For example, young people of the population that constitute Generation Y would prefer a higher number of low-quality, cheap and fashionable clothes as compared to baby boomers, who would prefer to purchase fewer number of higher quality clothes (Crew and Davenport 1992). From conservative consumers' perspective, fast fashion is viewed as a Waste' because rather than buying one high quality item to satisfy a wardrobe need, consumers buy multiples that are lower quality and then throw old merchandise away as quickly as they bring in new ones (Sydney 2008).In 171 agreement with Barnes and Lea-Greenwood (2006) and based on different perspectives of consumers toward fast fashion mentioned in this study, it is apparent that fast fashion is a consumer-driven approach, in addition to a su pplier-driven approach. Future research related to fast fashion Review of existing research on different aspects of fast fashion indicates that the past 20 years have seen substantial progress in knowledge generation about the topic, as evidenced by the increasing number of Journal publications over time and the variety of topics addressed, though these are mostly restricted to the supply chain domain.Literature n fast fashion implies that rapid responsiveness techniques such as Just-in time, quick response, and agile supply chains can be valuable to the fashion industry because such techniques can create a competitive edge in the market (see, for example, Bruce, Daly, and Towers 2004; Christopher, Lawson, and Peck 2004; Frito, May, and Straighten 1995; Shoal, Perry, and Pratt 1998).However, minimal evidence addresses consumer behavior towards fashion that is quickly changing (see, for example, Barnes and Lea-Greenwood 2006). By knowing how and to what extent rapid changing fashion affects consumers' purchase behavior and satisfaction levels, tillers can develop strategies that can lead to improved profitability. The phenomenon of fast fashion has been extensively discussed in the fashion press.However, the existing academic literature on fast fashion is somewhat limited and calls for additional research on aspects such as factors that motivate consumers' purchase intention such as exclusivity, price-consciousness, hoarding merchandise for future use, consumers' perceived risk due to trade-off between quality and price, consumer expectation and satisfaction after the consumption process, and consumers' efficiency in terms of cost-benefit analysis.The dramatic change in the fashion apparel industry, coupled with environmental concerns giving rise to conscious consumers in terms of fair trade, the green market and organic clothing, implies that researchers will need to broaden, redesign and align their research to match the fashion markets in the twenty-first ce ntury. Further research can also examine the pricing strategy used for fast fashion apparel along with analysis of consumers' willingness to pay more for environmentally friendly and sustainable fast fashion apparel (for example, organic and green cotton apparel used by Ezra and H&M) (see Ethical Style 2009).Currently, little is reported in the literature regarding the segmentation of consumers based on the acceptance of fast fashion. Therefore, it is important to conduct research to analyses the acceptance of fast fashion across different consumer segments. Another area of research interest could be to see whether consumers perceive fast fashion brands as counterfeit due to lower price and quality offered by the retailers. Also, it will be worth understanding how consumers differentiate value retailing and fast fashion retailing as both aim to offer lower prices.Conclusion Fast fashion is a concept that will continue to affect the assign apparel industry over the next decade and wi ll have a direct effect on the way consumers purchase and react to trends. Although continued research relative to the supply-side of fast fashion is important, emphasis should be placed on examining consumers' 172 perception of fast fashion. Empirical understanding of consumer characteristics and their motivation to make purchase decisions for throwaway fashion can help retailers in developing effective marketing strategies to perform more effectively in the market. References Bailey Fashion Throughout this essay, a thorough analysis will be made in relation to specific research on cultures of work in a particular work place. The workplace that will be focused on throughout this essay is a ladies fashion boutique. The main argument will focus on discourses of management throughout the concepts of what is considered as work in the retail sector, how the working environment is managed throughout the fashion industry, commitment in the workplace and relationship of teamwork.All these aspects of work will be tied in together to form a research based argument in relation to the fashion boutique. In order to produce a contextual remark of the notion of work, research will be based on primary research from an interview with the manager of the ladies fashion boutique and observations of the boutique. Throughout the use of the interviewing being incorporated into this essay, theoretical concepts and scholarly articles will be used to back up the focus on discourses of management within the perspective of what is considered as work in the work place.Due to ethical reasons, I will be making reference to the manager of the boutique by the name of Anna. In reference to the notion of work within the ladies fashion boutique, before focusing n that, firstly a brief overview about the company, the workplace and what it provides to customers and the fashion industry. The ladies fashion company offers a diverse range of fashion clothing and accessories for contemporary Australian woman. The wide clothing range caters for women that are 25 years of age and up as well as offering sizes ranged from 8 to 16 to suit their individual needs.The retail sector has become a significant focus throughout the fashion industry and the way work is structured around it. Work within the retail industry needs to be efficient in order to create a successful irking environment for both employees and customers. According to the United States Department of Labor, in their book on work, in relation to the retail sector, they claim that â€Å"whether selling shoes, computer equipment, or automobiles, retail salesperson assist customers in finding what they are looking for.They also try to increase the sales by describing a product's features, demonstrating its uses, and promoting its value† (2011, p. 543). Alternatively, in the case of this ladies fashion boutique, Anna and her team focus on forming a successful customer base and sell customers clothing in order to suit their needs. Within retail, the customer is always a significant factor. In order to meet the customer's requirements, the notion of work by the employee needs to be efficient within the workplace in the way they sell and promote the particular product.For instance; if an employee is selling a white linen dress from the fashion boutique to a customer, then in order to successfully sell that dress, they would need to ensure it is the correct size and style that suits that particular customer. How ever, this is why the discourse of work within retail is important as it becomes a process of service in work. Similarly, Erickson article focuses on the concept of ‘dance of service', as he refers to the concept of it by using the example of a restaurant.In his article, he mentions that â€Å"imagine the restaurant like a stage; the line between back and front is demarcated not by a curtain but rather the place where kitchen tile turns into dining room carpet† (2004, p. 77). In relation to the ladies fashion boutique, their act of service works in a similar motion. Interviewee, Anna was asked what their workplace was like at the boutique, she spooned by saying; â€Å"the physical space I work for is open plan and it is visible to the public. I work indoors and the store is based in a shopping centre surrounded by glass windows.We have one computer at work which is used by all the team† (2011, Personal Interview). In reference to the response of the workplace in the fashion boutique, alternatively in relation to Erickson notion of ‘dance of service', the workplace is held in a substantial open plan area and the employees work freely in order to move around to serve the customers, followed by processing the sale through the computer system. Ultimately, this notion of what is considered as work and how the working environment is managed also ties in with the notion of commitment within the workplace.Commitment is an important factor of work which needs to be taken into consideration not only in the retail sector but within every working sector through various Jobs. In relation to the main argument of this essay in relation to cultures of work, commitment becomes a common theme of discourse throughout the culture of work within the fashion boutique, both in a theoretical framework and primary research taken from the manager of the boutique. To draw on primary research, the interviewee was asked about her role in the boutique and general working requirements.She responded; â€Å"The work I do at the moment is in a managerial position at a fashion retail boutique, I work for a successful Australian manufacturer and retail company. The hours I work are 40 hours full time work a week and my hours do not change, however my working days do change. I have worked for the same employer for 8 years and I thoroughly enjoy the workplace that I work in and I am consistently committed to my work† (2011, Personal Interview). In addition to this,Meyer and Allen in their book about commitment in the workplace claim that â€Å"the view that commitment is a psychological state that (a) characterizes the employee's relationship with the organization, and (b) has implications for the decision to continue membership in the organization (1997, p. 1 1). Consequently, it is important to recognize that commitment in the workplace is essential. If you are going to work in a particular workplace, in relation to this essay; a ladies fa shion boutique, then you need to ensure that you are committed to that work and what work is required of you o fill your daily Job requirements.Evidently, when interviewee Anna was asked about the commitment towards the workplace, she responded by saying; â€Å"l work as a team, which I thoroughly enjoy. However, as I work in a fashion retail store, I need to wear the clothes that we sell in the store. In relation to commitment in our workplace, all team members are committed and the relationship that we have is important, of which is; honesty, reliability and friendliness† (2011, Personal Interview).All these aspects that are addressed are reiterated through Meyer and Allen's representation f commitment being labeled as three different components of which are: â€Å"affective, continuance and normative† (1997, p. 1 1). Through this, within the workplace it is important to understand that if you are commitment to your work then you belong within that particular organiz ation. To break down these three different components in relation to the fashion boutique, this can be discussed through my observations of the workplace.In relation to the affective component, this referred to the way the employees felt within the workplace and their involvement within the workplace environment (Meyer and Allen, 1997, p. 1). In relation to this, throughout the observations, employees at the ladies fashion boutique were committed and enthusiastic in assisting customers with their needs for fashion clothing (2011, Personal Observations). Similarly, as for the continuance component of commitment, this involves the cost within the workplace (Meyer and Allen, 1997, p. 1 1).In reference to this, from the observations, the employees involved were not showing any sign of leaving the workplace. The employee's commitment within the fashion boutique workplace was purely based on assisting the customers in buying and trying on loathes, daily paperwork involved within the Job a nd re – stocking of clothes out on the floor. Within the workplace there did not show to be any sign of employees working only for the factor of money, it was there passion for the Job and satisfying the customer's needs (2011, Personal Observations).Alternatively, the notion of normative commitment refers to the responsibility and requirements that are displayed from the employees in order to stay within the organization (Meyer and Allen, 1997, p. 1 1). In particular, it is referred to as the high level of responsibility that s required from both the manager and their employees. If the level of normative commitment is evidently high throughout the employees and the workplace then employees of the fashion boutique will feel the need to remain within the workplace.Overall, in conjunction with all three of these components of commitment, it displays a thorough view on how commitment becomes an important factor within not only the fashion industry but also in any other workplace . Alternatively, within the workplace, alongside what is considered as work and the commitment of employees towards the workplace, teamwork is a significant factor hat falls under the concept of discourse of management within the working environment.When working in an organization, in this case a fashion boutique, employees working together as a team in order to fulfill budget requirements as well as their customer service throughout the Job, this leads to creating a successful business and workplace environment. Interviewee, Anna was asked how her team worked within the fashion boutique. She responded by saying; â€Å"l mainly work with women and I work very closely with a great team, with each and every team member with different strengths towards the workplace† (2011, Personal Interview).Similarly, through this, Managing in his book about effective team work claims that â€Å"working as a team has definite advantages for you as an employee, for your company, and you're yo ur customers. Most people have to learn new interpersonal and process skills to become involved, fully effective and contributing team members (1994, p. 2). In saying this, from Anna's previous response in relation to how her team work within the boutique, I order to fulfill their goals, constant assistance is evident amongst all employees and they all help each other in the workplace to develop a safe, comfortable and successful environment.Similarly, this leads to building a workplace of high morale. Ultimately, Brace's article discusses the trust and respect that manager's need to display towards their employees in order to ensure that there is unique performance by employees and a high employee morale continuously shown (2002, p. 10). Alternatively, within a workplace environment, if employers and their employees do not work well together in order to fulfill daily sales requirements, then conflict amongst employees could arise which could lead to employee resignation. Hence, eff ective teamwork in the workplace leads to a successful company within the detail fashion industry.In reference to teamwork amongst the workplace, an additional quality aspect that ties in with the notion of team work is Job satisfaction amongst employees. According to Specter, â€Å"Job satisfaction is simply how people feel about their Jobs and different aspects of their Jobs. It is the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their Jobs† (1997, p. 2). In relation to the fashion boutique, it has become evident from the responses of the interview that Anna is sufficiently happy and enjoying her Job as well as her employees.The way she works with her employees builds an efficient morale within the workplace. The manager's interaction towards fellow employees needs to be successful in a way to form a relationship bond with one another in the workplace. Throughout the notion of Job satisfaction, when working in either a fashion boutique or another particular workplace, attending work on a daily basis, you need to make sure that you feel satisfied about your Job and the people you are working with.For instance; when selling a garment to a customer, you use your retail skills to communicate with the customer in order to sell her a garment. If the customer is satisfied and buys that particular garment then you as an employee will feel that your Job has been satisfied which will encourage you to work even better in the workplace. Ultimately, in relation to Job satisfaction, interviewee Anna answers her thoughts about it within her workplace.She says; â€Å"In the years I have worked at this fashion boutique, myself and my employees have always been satisfied in the work we do and the acknowledgment we get from customer feedback is very positive. When we also sell over an average budget, we receive bonuses which we feel satisfied that we are working efficiently in the oracle† (2011, Personal Interview). In particular, this ties in with Specter's view of job satisfaction, where the employees in the fashion boutique are highly content with their Jobs. In relation to Anna's response to bonuses, they are a satisfying work incentive within the workplace.For instance; when an employee sells over the required average sale budget, they may receive an incentive of a voucher to use towards garments within the store. It is a way of not only ensuring the employees are satisfied but that the employees feel that they are presenting successful takings for the company on a daily basis. Overall, a significant claim that McDowell makes in relation to this is the way â€Å"work itself is as much about the cultural production of employees as about the material production of goods and services† (2002, p. 06). In relation to the fashion boutique, employees would work together to produce the skills and knowledge required to sell the fashion and accessories to consumers. In conclusion, throughout this essay, it has be come evident that there are various discourses of management within the workplace environment. Specifically, in relation the Ladies Fashion Clothing Boutique being the main case study throughout the above discussion in overall relation to the topic of cultures of work within the workplace environment.Thorough contextual research has been analyses and discussed in relation to what is considered as work, commitment in the workplace and the notion of teamwork within the workplace, all in accordance to the above relevant case study. Evidently, inclusion of primary research methods from interview questions and observations of the workplace have thoroughly been put into context with theoretical concepts within cultures of work as well as consistent support from scholarly articles and books. Fashion Fashion: What you wear defines who you are. Fashion is an enormous icon in our society. It is practically the thing we can never go without. We make our very first impression by what we wear not by our personalities. They say you are what you eat but truly you are what you wear and fashion has provided us with a little something to define everyone. There are so many styles of fashion: Goth, Chic, Prep, Hippies etc. Every style has its own description so why would we not be classified into that style and its description that fits us perfectly.What we wear can also make it easy for us to identify people and whether they are ho we want to socialism with, I. E. An individual wearing all Goth (black colored clothing) would not befriend someone who wears preppy clothing (beige colored clothing). Fashion plays an even bigger role when it comes to uniforms; do you that think without uniforms we would be able to identify the authority on our streets? Do you think that we would have the same r espect for a doctor in a Sears and t-shirt?A number of religions prescribed a specific clothing style aside for us. Our designers are creative geniuses in all aspects. There is no obvious reason as to why we buy the yep of wardrobes we do. It could be to make a statement to get noticed, I. E. Prostitutes are easy to spot with their provocative style of fashion. Others might Just be copying the current trend – this makes it hard for to prove the theory of â€Å"what you wear defines you† – but then we could Judge these individuals as those who have not found a style that defines them.We wear clothes to beautify ourselves to attract the attention we seek. We dress a certain way that mirrors the mood we are in, happy = bright colored clothing & sad = grey and baggy clothing, there are many seasons as to why we take hours Just deciding what to wear because it is essential in our lives to create the correct mood, persona, background, etc. Why wouldn't one agree with this statement?We choose the clothes we wear by the way we want to be perceived by others, fact. Several options about how could one not define ones self with it. They say don't Judge a book by its cover but in the end we still go ahead and judge this is the same for fashion which is why we make sure we always look good. We do not need loincloths anymore to Just cover up it is the 21st century! There is a whole new meaning to clothing ourselves. WORDS: 450 Fashion Progress of a society mainly depends upon the society ¤? ¬was youngsters. They are the one taking oath to assist the whole nation ¤? ¬was boat of dream and hope reach their destined desire and anchor the sea-shore. So,people might reckon that young people should be expressed properly to their surroundings regardless by their own or fashion consciousness. ‘ think,young people should be as much fashion conscious as by which they could get attraction of their Juniors and followers,to be worthy of being followed as the torchbearer of the whole nation.The current nature of our society is to be driven away or get carried away by the good looks and appearances of a person,though it is hard to listen but a true fact. So,we must be more practical rather than being emotional. As,part of being practical,we have to emphasis on what people hanker after,what they demand for. That is why,young people as,considered as the torchbearer of our nation,should be more fashion conscious to ge t attractive,so that,they might be followed as the society ¤? ¬was idol. Humans are by nature characterized as getting attracted by opposite gender room the very beginning of the origin of human society.Now-a-days,everyone prefers a person ¤? ¬was outlooks and wealth as well more than anything,which is a real fact. The more you are being fashion conscious,The better you tend to be attractive for the opposite gender. So,as part of finding a decent partner,one might be fashion conscious since it is helpful to let you find one. The visualization of current society regarding one person ¤? ¬was smartness is day by day deteriorating. People,however,now,think that the one with more fashionable ideas is he one with more smartness. So,it is like,if you are being fashion conscious you are known as a smart guy in your society.As years,decades waves through and oscillated ahead,our society improves and youngsters are the one who does it through their intelligence,merit and different types of innovative,creative and productive ideas. Since,beautification of our appearance is the major concern for us as part of representing our smartness,which I think,by observing the current situation of our society,various types of reality shows in our TV channels such as,Lush Channel I Superstar,and so on are getting popular day by day,where your face is becoming a product.Some people of our society visualize one ¤? ¬was realm and influence over the society are the effects or resultants of habitants amount of wealth,inheritance. They don ¤? ¬wet pay heed to the outlook or appearances of a person,As fast as one person ¤ sees diligence,intelligence,merits and talents are concerned,these are only reflections of that person ¤? ¬was level of thinking ability,skills on various things,eligibilities on executing tough problems that they face in life. And if a person is vague with his life,he/she can show their skills and potentiality through his works and deeds.And as a n example,if one ¤? ¬was outlook and appearances would be everything needed in life,football player of Arsenal football club,Servings,could not have become a model. Refuting the counter points of the statement is as much needs as wended to understand the importance of beige fashion conscious as representative of our young generations. As I said earlier,the society is getting drowned down by the outlook,hence being sentimental or hypocrite won't help someone to find his/her influence on the wealth that they possess.Since,smartness is one of the key features one might own in succeeding with their life,fashion conscious people are the ones,who are considered as smart people now-a-days. Since,fashion consciousness is virtue of a so called fashionable person these days,so by born or as sustaining a habitual fact,they might be responsible,serious or conscious to all of their duties and responsibilities. In properly described situation of our current society regarding evaluation of a p erson does contain our fondness to one ¤? ¬was get awards fashion consciousness is very essential for our teenagers and younger ones to be more expressive. F they are to bear and carry the whole nation forward,they must have something in their character which might provoke their surroundings such as and even superiors to get attracted by. Thus they would enable themselves to grab some followers,who would become their correspondents in building the future of the nation and could get spreader out all over the world as their messenger,as per my visualization upon the topic is concerned. Fashion Fashion:on and off the runway? Fashion: On and Off the Runway What comes to mind when you think of fashion? Do you picture the latest issue of W Magazine, a runway for â€Å"starving Models†? , or is fashion to you less of a privilege and more of a key to acceptance? Dries Van Note once said â€Å"Consider clothing not as an element of social status but more as an expression of one's personality. † Jaeger p. 54) The fact is, fashion isn't about putting something on our bodies to cover us up, but a form of expression!Just like a singer singing on a stage to communicate, and a writer choices his opinion in his Journal, a Fashions expresses his/herself by Cloths and Accessories. First of all, the main goal and soul reasoning off budding fashion designer is to express their own self in a beautiful way and have people not only to accept their product but use it to help express themselves. Stylist Kathy England stated â€Å"To have ‘style' is quite a rare thing. It's when someone's visual senses are heightened. It's instinctively knowing how to put one's whole self- clothes, shoes, makeup, hair, nails, etc. Together in harmony and having the self-confidence to do it. It has absolutely nothing to do with money. † Jaeger p. 194). This Golden Philosophy is shared throughout the fashion world from designers like Mulberry to Gucci and Calvin Klein to Diesel (Cereal p. 86). Journalist Jeanne Baker defined fashion as the following: â€Å"Clothing is the general term for various coverings designed to protect or adorn the human biology. † (Baker p. 10) In order to have a successful fashion designing career, one must have at least a bachelor's degree.It has been decided that a bachelor's degree is needed to fully understand and memorize the agreements and form of the body. From coast to coast, Colleges, that teach exactly that art, called The Art Institutes, are in a numerous amount of states, especially in bigger metropolitan areas. Personal ly, I believe that if a person has the talent and knowledge of clothing the body, no type of schooling is needed but is very useful as a plan to fall back on in the case of an emergency Jaeger p. 94). Margaret Van Den Busch, creator and designer of the popular H&M Department stores, once stated that in his opinion â€Å"†¦ O can definitely learn how to be a designer by working rather than tidying, but it might take you longer† when asked if fashion school was necessary in becoming a fashion designer Jaeger p. 94). One very exciting and stressful bonus of being a fashion designer is that you are more than likely to become your own boss. It is very important to the future fashion designer that they possess the quality to be one's own boss. This meaner you are obligated to make up your own schedule, work your own hours, hire clients and learn to budget your wages.Some turn to alternative sources such as a secretary, assistant, or someone you trust to manage these things. An other important factor in becoming a designer is working in laid back, harmonious environments. Working in such an environment really has a lot of influence on your designs and the rate you produce these products. Although I have never been in a situation where I have had to rush in planning or designing a piece, I could imagine the stress put on a designer when a deadline is pressed is greatly nerve-racking.Angela Mission, daughter of one of the most celebrated and long standing designers in Italy, once quoted â€Å"l know that I like to work in harmony†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Lam lucky in that when y parent's built the company in 1968, they built it in the woods, in a place they would have loved to live. † Jaeger p. 45) From personal experience, I have noticed that when I am more relaxed sewing goes smoother and pieces flow together easier. It is always a good idea to work in a well-lighted Comfortable, Non-Stressful, setting.Last, but definitely not least, the Fashion industry contr ibutes greatly to society. In the realm of business, the field of fashion marketing and stocks and bonds stimulates the economy by putting money back into the cycle of things Jaeger p. 253). On the other and, in the mental aspect, by using fashion as a way to express one's inner voice, fashion shapes people's attitudes and self-esteem. For example when you wear a certain theme you are compelled to act on your emotion that made you want to wear that outfit.Although some would argue that the issues with â€Å"skinny models† or provocative, revealing fashion corrupts the self-image of young girls today in defense of designers, I can appreciate the art and feeling that the designer is trying to get across thru the piece. It is also true that In the world of fashion one day you're in and he next day you're out (Baker p. 10). As harsh as it may seem, this is none less than a reality to anyone in the fashion business and the industry has no respect for person.To fashion newcomers su ch as Lady GaGa, April Leaving, and Selene Gomez it is very important that they stay on their toes and keep themselves in the fashion scene. In conclusion, Fashion may seem like the least of some peoples worries and not of importance to society but in reality it's what we wear everyday†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. So the question is, what are you wearing? Sources Consulted Baker, Jeanne. Passion for Fashion: Careers in Style. United States by Tundra Books of Northern New York 2008 Cereal, Olivier.Fashion: Concept to Catwalk. United States by Firefly Book Ltd. 2010 Globing, Pamela. Balancing Paris. United States of America by Thames & Hudson Inc. 2006 Jaeger, Anne-Cline. Fashion Makers Fashion shapers. United States of America by Thames & Hudson Inc. 2009 Eleventh, Melissa. Retreat: Fashion and Anti-Fashion. Untied States of America by Thames & Hudson Inc. 2005 Mower, Sarah. Stylist: Interpreters of Fashion. China by Arizona International Publications Inc. 2007

International Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

International Law - Essay Example As to ancient Rome, it was an empire that absorbed many of the western independent nations. When the empire fell, however, many of the rules and laws it imposed in commerce and in other areas also faded away. Nevertheless, many of the rules and principles of international law took root in the ancient Greco-Roman systems although such rules and principles were often employed as rules of religion and laws for international relations of one state with foreign states forming part of its municipal law. A. Ancient Greece Although the Greeks did not foster close relations with its neighbors, it had to deal with its components, the city-states, which are independent from each other. Each of the city-states (or polis) comprising Greece had their respective economic and political systems. Each was considered a religious community and the rules and laws that characterized their relationships were called religious obligations and not laws (Bederman 2001:33) Some of these were: the avoidance of w ar; if unavoidable, should be commenced only through a declaration; heralds or messengers not to be harmed; fallen soldiers in battles entitled to burial; in the event of a city’s capture, refugees in temples to be spared; prisoners of war cannot be killed, but only ransomed, enslaved or exchanged; priests and seers also to be spared (Kaczorowska 2010:8). Moreover, it was Greece that first developed a highly sophisticated system of arbitration and proxeny (state hospitality), which is the basis of diplomatic immunity (Kaczorowska 2010:2). Associations and federations were also periodically formed among city-states for the purpose of establishing non-interference agreements, full citizenship grants, offensive and defensive alliances or for religious reasons. With respect to other states, however, ancient Greece was in a perpetual state of war due to its experience in the Persian Wars in 500-479 BCE, when Persia invaded and captured its colonies (Bederman 36-37). B. Ancient Rom e Rome, which is considered the most influential of all ancient civilizations, entered into treaties with neighboring Latin states, but once it started to expand its empire it employed the principles of jus fetiale and jus gentium in conducting relations with foreign states. Jus fetiale are religious laws that governed wars. Wars must be underpinned by a reason, otherwise they are unjust. Jus gentium or the law of tribe, on the other hand, governed Rome’s conduct with non-Romans and the conduct of Roman citizens with non-Roman citizens. This body of laws was made up of norms and concepts that were believed to be common and acceptable to both Romans and non-Romans. It primarily regulated the relations between private individuals and was first crafted by the praetor peregrinus or special magistrate. Jus gentium has greatly influenced the European legal systems and public international law (Kaczorowska 2010:3). In addition, the doctrine of natural law, believed to have anteceded human rights, was first created by the Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece and was subsequently adopted by the Romans. This doctrine is underpinned by the existence of right reason as something inherent in man and nature and therefore, capable of being discovered (Kaczorowska 2010:9). C. Conclusion: Greco-Roman Influence on the UN Charter The avoidance of war as well as the principle of just war, which first appeared in ancient Greece as religious obligations and in ancient

Maths coursework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Maths coursework - Essay Example Although the function "y=10e^ (-0.175t)", slightly differ from the given values of the graph (between hour 4-7). However, for the all other points, the graph follows the same path as the one given. So we can say that the function "y=10e^ (-0.175t)", is suitable to model the data of the graph. Figure 3 represents the amount of the drug in the bloodstream over a 24-hour period. In the below graph (figure 3) assumption is made that after every six hour 10 Â µg of drug is given to patient and it adds in the drug remained in the bloodstream ( value of constant a in function "y=10e^ (-0.175t)", will change after every six hours). Therefore, the function will change after every six hours as the remaining drug adds into the given drug every six hours. Initially the drug given was 10 Â µg. After six hour, it remains to 3.5 Â µg. Now when 10 Â µg is again give to patient then it will become 13.5 Â µg. Moreover, this pattern will be continues for every six hours. Since we wanted to plot for 24-hour period, so for the second, third and fourth period the function will be " y=13.5e^ (-0.175(t-6)) ", " y=14.7e^ (-0.175(t-12)) "and" y=15.1e^ (-0.175(t-18)) " respectively. The value of t is changed here, so that the graph plotted continuous from the last point, other wise it will start from the starting point. From the figure 5, it can be seen that, when after initially 10Â µg of drug is given to the patient and thereafter no drug is given to the patients then the function "y=10e^ (-0.175t)" is when plotted for week period, the value of y approaches to 0 (actual value will be 0.0524 Â µg) after 30 hours. However, it will never become zero. Figure 6 represents the amount of the drug in the bloodstream over a 24-hour period. In the above graph assumption is made that after every six hour 10 Â µg of drug is given to patient and it adds in the drug remained in the bloodstream ( value of constant a in function "y=10e^ (-0.175t)", will change after

The Effects of Global Warming and Climate Change on Greenland and Ice Research Paper

The Effects of Global Warming and Climate Change on Greenland and Ice Melting - Research Paper Example Climate change in Greenland and the surrounding areas can be measured as per the remaining ice cap and the sea level. There are three key effects of climate change in Greenland consist of melting of the ice cap, thinner ice in the sea and permafrost. There are fears that if the ice cap continues melting at the same rate at some point there will be no more ice in green land (Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, 1). The effects so due to the ice cap meting far include glaciers spitting large amount of icebergs into the ocean. Moreover, there are lakes that have recently been forming on the ice leading to water plunging in the ice sheet leading to sliding of water to the seaside. The rate at which ice is melting at the green land cannot be compared with the ice gained or formed during winter (Church et al 136). This means that a lot of water remains in the sea even after solidification during winter. The question many people ask is whether human beings are purely to blame for the occurrence of global warming and its effects (Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research 1). However, since many countries today have signed Kyoto protocol it is clear that they have accepted that human activities have many negative effects to the environment (University of Alaska Fairbanks, 1). This is mainly because emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere have led to temperature rise, which has led to melting of the ice. The ice cap at Greenland is essential to humanity existence in various ways one major role that it plays is regulating temperature, as almost ninety percent of the sunrays that hit the ice cap are reflected back. This ensures that the temperature in the atmosphere as well as in the ocean is regulated. Thus, if the ice cap melts then this regulation will no longer be available making the ocean and atmosphere be warmer (Witze, 799). Although, it may take many generations for all the ice to melt down, this is not a consolation since there would be many n egative effects caused by the excess fresh water in the ocean resulting from the melted ice. Studies have proven that it is possible for all the ice to melt, hence if the current global warming rate continues. This is because it is the significant rise of temperature, which has caused the increased melting of the ice. Greenhouse effect causes most of the damage relating to global warming, as carbon dioxide absorbs heat from the sun making it impossible to be reflected back to the sun. This leads to the atmosphere becoming hot and given that the warmth is trapped in the atmosphere, the rise of temperature occurs. There are many effects of melting of Greenland ice; one is that it leads to loss of water bodies this is because the enclosed lakes in the ice are freed when ice melts. The other effect is to the animals that live in the ice caps this is because, over the years, they have adapted to the climate of Greenland and have created their eating habits and migration patterns. However , hunting for food becomes hard without the ice and high sea level. Global warming may cause melting of ice in Greenland, but it also causes global warming (Witze, 800). This is because loss of ice leads to sun rays being absorbed by the ocean increasing ocean temperature, which leads to increase of temperature in the atmosphere, which leads to increase of warmth leading to more ice melting. Rising of the sea level is one of the aftermaths of climate change in the Greenland since when the ice melts the fresh water ends up in

Global Versus Domestic only Mergers and Acquisitions Essay

Global Versus Domestic only Mergers and Acquisitions - Essay Example The strategy of Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A) plays an important role to both sides of the growth path by enabling strong companies to assume faster growth than their competition thereby rewarding entrepreneurs for their efforts and ensuring the weaker companies get swallowed faster and even made redundant through share erosion and exclusion. M&A, therefore, is a crucial fraction of any healthy economy by basically ensuring that shareholders are able to gain rewards from their businesses (Thomson & Martin, 2005). This fact, coalesced with the potential for large returns makes M&A a highly attractive method for entrepreneurs and business owners to capitalize on their company values. It is, therefore, no wonder that the unique business trend of M&A has, in the recent times, become a common occurrence in the business world between firms seeking to achieve strategic value for themselves. M&A deals always make media headlines probably due to the huge amounts of cash that some of them entail, sometimes involving billions of US dollars which may exceed the GDP of some small countries. The main reason for their occurrence is to boost the shareholder value of both firms and this is also used as a performance measure to gauge the success of M&A (Galpin & Herndon, 2007). M&A is used as a survival tactic during tough economic times and in most cases involves strong companies buying out smaller ones to create more cost-efficient, competitive companies. M&A can either take place between firms operating within a country’s borders (domestic M&A) or beyond a particular country’s boundaries (global M&A). This article will provide a general overview of merger and acquisitions and then compare and contrast the domestic and global M&A using a few case studies (Aoki, Jackson & Miyajima, 2007).

BMW Films case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

BMW Films - Case Study Example Besides â€Å"the hire† series, various options that the company can take in order to consolidate its marketing strategy are paramount in order to maintain its market position, and increase its success and performance in the automobile industry (Jham 2). Concerning a approach that can help consolidate the market position that BMW has had in their marketing and general growth, there is a need for the company to make a careful consideration of their previous action. â€Å"The hire† series were an essential step that gave the company huge growth after their introduction in terms of average sales as shown. Information from customers’ feedback has openly shown that they loved the approach and were fascinated by the driver character in the BMW films. As the company executive officer, there seem to be another opportunity in re-inventing the series. In this approach, the company should try to increase the amount of time, since people have been eager to know what happened of the driver in the films (Moon 10). Here is the catch, the company should re-edit the strategy and include other characters that advance the promotional objectives of the company, the results would surely be tremendous. The first option explains that the company should milk all the films available completely before re-introducing a new strategy. This is also the same idea in the second option; however, the third one talks of something a different, a new version of the films. Rejecting the first two arises from the fact that they may not be any different from the current BMW films approach, for this reason, the company may not achieve much. The forth option recommends for doing nothing, but watch as the events unfold, this is not a safe idea because other companies are trying their best to increase their market share, BMW therefore has a mandate to change its approach too. The issues of whether the

Disclosing Illness in Children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Disclosing Illness in Children - Essay Example No challenges and obstacles should be oppressing our children. These claims are often provided by loving and caring parents. Very often they hide the truth from their children. In the context of medicine, ethical concerns are one of the most important. Therefore, when parents want to keep their children from knowing truth about their diagnoses, they are following such tendencies as fear to reduce child’s desire to live; avoid depression in their child, avoid social oppression or rejection etc (Hendrick, 2004). On the other hand, they are only complicating the situations, because children may be informed by third parties and then the pressure on them will be even more intense. There is a need to inform a child about the illness within family and develop illness coping strategies for sure (Leathard, McLaren, 2007). `In case children know their diagnosis, it will be easier for them to have higher self-esteem and to cause lower depression levels among their parents. In the case sc enario, a child does not know about her diagnosis hepatitis B. Her liver is being gradually destroyed and her mother wants to keep her uninformed about her status. On the other hand, it is better to inform the girl, because in such a way the danger of illness is potentially hazardous for her sexual partners for sure (Butts, 2008). Social implications of hiding the true diagnosis from a child may result in ruined friendship or damaged social contacts, distancing of family members and many other unpleasant things. It is better to inform the child about her diagnosis by family members at once. Of course, it is relevant to take into account child’s age and to find the best convenient time and ways of a child’s informing. There is a need to widen horizon of the neighbors or relatives about the illness in order not to keep them in fear. For example, the way HBV is transmitted is often unknown for people. All physicians of a child and family, few friends and family members sh ould be informed about a child’s diagnosis for sure (Dowrick and Frith, 1999). Of course, there is a chance that these people would remain aside this problem or would not understand your family, but it is better not to hide the truth for sure, but fight for a tolerant attitude to a child. There is a need for support from family members or friends. At this stage it is desirable to provide these people with relevant information about the disease (Reamer, 2005). Proper and on-time informing is worth consideration at different stages of diagnosis disclosure. Not only children should be prepared for this process, but all family member and the closest friends in order to support them. When child is at high school, she will be able to decide whether inform or not inform her friends about her diagnosis (Waz, 2010). Discussion and integration of the ethical principles and theories Treatment providers, the members of the family with HBV should follow ethics code. The highest standards of care should be developed in terms of ethics code. There is no need to choose between right or wrong decisions.  There is a need to balance ethical concerns of family members, teachers and medical staff in every particular case. Thus, it should be noted that professionals in medical sphere would always act in the interests of their client. For example, in this scenario they are worried about potential health hazards to her surrounding people and friends. Her mother is keeping secrets from

Emerging Issues in Product Development Term Paper - 4

Emerging Issues in Product Development - Term Paper Example Companies and organizations have turned to product development as a means of staying relevant in the market. The essence of product development is to have customers get enhanced products that are capable of meeting their needs. Murad Ahmed, a senior technology journalist recently wrote an article concerning Microsoft is modifying the latest version of its software called the windows 8 (Ahmed 2014, p. 1). The story as reported by Ahmed detailed some of the reasons why Microsoft had decided to modify its latest product (Ahmed 2014, p. 1). The gist of the matter as reported by Ahmed was that customers world over were finding it difficult to use the product as it bore some sought of complications. The issue as reported in March 2014 by Ahmed seemed to have taken a number of people by surprise (Ahmed 2014, p. 1). Even though the giant software company has plans to incorporate the previous features in the newly introduced product, the actions should be well thought of as appropriate. It is just under 16 months since Windows 8 was introduced into the market (Ahmed 2014, p. 1). Pundits argued that this new development was by far the biggest thing that had ever happened in the software industry. The software product has gained a number of positive feedbacks since the time of inception. However, the company has reported that through its feedback system, a number of customers think otherwise about the product. Some think that the new software is not user-friendly and, therefore, provides a challenge in its use. This has prompted the Microsoft Company to announce its intention to return earlier features in the new product. While the company, maybe by right and well within its jurisdiction to satisfy its customers there are a number of issues that can be drawn from the company’s latest move. One of the issues that remain clear is that the company may not have done its homework properly. Before introducing a product into the market, it is incumbent upon a company to carry out the market survey so as to know what a majority of customers want.

Given Below Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Given Below - Essay Example n American groups, ostracized by institutional racism and cyclical poverty, employed this force in an effort to restructure government and attain more than just â€Å"equal rights†, but also equal opportunity. The endeavor culminated with the establishment of affirmative action, an effort to supersede the lack of equitable opportunity. White ethnicity resurged, in part defensively, as a response. White ethnics applied their cultural identification and political will toward the protection of their jobs and neighborhoods, which they felt were endangered by black demands. They perceived demands of blacks as a threat to their own opportunities and stridently opposed the anti-individual, group recognition of affirmative action. The authors’ argument is reasonable and persuasively delivered. The authors’ propose that black and ethnic cultural resurgence allowed a galvanization of political strength which served the strategic function of supporting and defending issues key to each group. Though inherently similar, these groups sought different political and socioeconomic goals, ultimately resulting in conflict (i.e. the riots of the late 1960s). The political efforts of these two groups, affirmative action and resistance toward de-individualization, strongly supports the authors’ argument that cultural identification was utilized as a stratagem for political and social strength and provides a cogent explanation for the resurgence of ethnic

Coffee and Starbucks Corporation Essay Example for Free

Coffee and Starbucks Corporation Essay Acknowledgements: First and foremost, we would like to express our gratitude to our faculty Ms. Nusrat Huq for her constant support and motivation, and we would also like to thank her for assigning a topic to our group that has been quite interesting to work with. We are immensely grateful to our friends and AIUB alumni who have been kind enough to share their knowledge with us. Last but not the least, our sincere gratitude goes to our respected families for their guidance and contribution in all aspects of our lives. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: Among many other global coffee shops, Starbucks is the most popular. This article discusses the company’s internal and external environments, its corporate strategies, organization structures, how they can improve their quality, and where there is room for success.In 1971, three young entrepreneurs began the Starbucks Corporation in Seattle Washington. Their key goal was to sell whole coffee beans. Soon after, Starbucks began experiencing huge growth, opening five stores all of which had roasting facilities, sold coffee beans and room for local restaurants. In 1987, Howard Schultz bought Starbucks from its original owners for $4 million after expanding Starbucks by opening three coffee bars. These coffee bars were based on an idea that was originally proposed to the owner who recruited him into the corporation as manager of retail and marketing. Overall, Schultz strategy for Starbucks was to grow slow. Starbucks went on to suffer financial losses and overhead operating expenses rose as Starbucks continued its slow expansion process. Despite the initial financial troubles, Starbucks went on to expand to 870 stores by 1996. Sales increased 84%, which brought the corporation out of debt. With the growing success, Starbucks planned to open 2000 stores by year 2000.

History of terrorism

History of terrorism Terrorist acts or the threat of such action have been in existence for centuries. Historical examples of terrorist events can be traced, in writing, to biblical times; the Romans were known to have both practiced and been the recipients of terrorist activities. (Carr, 2003). The earliest known organizations that exhibited aspects of modern terrorism were the Zealots of Judea, and the Sicarri, theand Jewish groups active during the Roman occupation of the first century Middle East. The preferential weapon of the Sicarri (literally, Dagger Men) was the sica, a short dagger which they used it for murdering those those (mainly Jews) they believed to be traitorsy deemed apostate and, thus, selected for execution.The Zealots, who generally targeted Romans and Greeks, gave the modern term Zealot, one translation of which is a fanatical partisan.. (Merriam-Webster, 1984). Such killings usually took place in daylight and in front of witnesses, with the perpetrators using such acts to send a message to the Roman authorities and the Jews who collaborated with them. This tactic was adopted by subsequent generation of groups which are now known as terrorists. The Assassins, also deemed as a terrorist organization, were an eleventh century offshoot of a Shia Muslim sect known as the Ismailis.They also perhaps also recognized the significance of high publicity as do contemporary terrorists. Like the Zealots-Sicarri, the Assassins were also given to stabbing their victims (generally politicians or clerics who refused to adopt the purified version of Islam they were forcibly spreading) (Bugress, 2003; Rapaport, 1965). The term Assassin (from where the modern term assassination is derived) literally meant hashish eater- , -which is in reference to the ritualistic drug-taking, they were perhaps falsely rumored to indulge in prior to undertaking their murderous missions. (Bugress, 2003; Rapaport, 1965). Often, the Assassins deeds were carried out at religious sites on holy days a tactic intended to publicize their cause and incite others to it.Similar to the numerous religiously motivated terrorists nowadays, they also looked at their deaths on such actions as sacrificial. Even though both the Zealots and the Assassins operated in the past, they are relevant today: First as forerunners of modern terrorists in aspects of motivation, organization, targeting, and goals. Second ly, although both were eventual failures, the fact that they are remembered hundreds of years later, demonstrates the deep psychological impact they caused. Sacrifice was also a central element of the killings carried out by the Thugees (from which the word thug is derived). They were the followers of an Indian religious cult which ritually strangled their victims (usually travelers chosen at random) as an offering to the Hindu goddess of terror and destruction, Kali. In this case, the intent was to terrify the victim (a vital consideration in the Thugee ritual) rather than influencing any external audience. The Thugees were active from the seventh until the mid-nineteenth centuries. They were known to have committed as many as one million murders. Perhaps they were the last example of religiously-inspired terrorism until the phenomenon re-emerged a little over 20 years ago. According to David Rapport, Before the 19th century, religion provided the only acceptable justifications for terror. (Robespierre, 2009). Probably all holy texts (not just the Quran) have been conveniently interpreted to justify violence against others. Robiespierre described terror as the emanation of virtue. An additional tendency at the end of 19th century was the ever-increasing wave of nationalism throughout the world, which incorporated the nation (the identity of the citizens) and the political state. Simultaneously, the states began to stress upon the national identities of the citizens who were conquered or colonized, much like the Jews during the period of Zealots who either chose to integrate or fight back. Over the last several decades, the most well-known, Irish nationalistic struggle has still been unresolved. Nationalism, similar to Communism was the most ideological force of the 20th century. (Burgess, 2003). Nationalists and Anarchists The English word terrorism comes from the regime de la terreur that prevailed in France from 1793-94. In the beginning it was a device of the state, and was intended to strengthen the authority of the new-found radical government, shielding it from elements thought to be subversive. Always value-laden, terrorism was, initially, a positive term. The French revolutionary leader, Maximilien Robespierre, viewed it as vital if the new French Republic was to survive its infancy, and proclaimed in 1794 that: Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible; it is therefore an emanation of virtue; it is not so much a special principle as it is a consequence of the general principle of democracy applied to our countrys most urgent needs.(Hoffman, 1988). Under such rationalization, some 40,000 people were executed by guillotine, a fate Robespierre and his top lieutenants would themselves suffered. In the meantime terrorism started to take negative undertones which it carries today. (AltThough the terrorists themselves do not consider themselves to be unconstructive or harmful to society). Edmund Burk, who demonized the French revolutionary practitioners, made the term popular in English writings. As a result of the French Revolution,new distinct concepts of nationalism and citizenship were evolved, which also led to the development of a new form of primary secular terrorism. The Italian revolutionary Carlo Pisacanes theory of the propaganda of the deed, which recognized the utility of terrorism to deliver a message to an audience other than the target, and draw attention and support to a cause was a hallmark to this new form of terrorism. (Laqueur, 1999). Pisacanes thesis was first put into practice by the Narodnaya Volya (NV), which was not in itself new and would probably have been recognizable to the Zealots-Sicarri and the Assassins. In 1878, a Russian populist group, (which was described as to Peoples Will) was formed to be in opposition to the Tzars regime. The groups most famous decisive action was the assassination of Alexander II inon 1 March 1881, which also effectively sealed their fate by incurring bringing upon themselves, the full wrath of the Tsarist regime. Unlike most other terrorist groups, the Volya went to great lengths to avoid innocent deaths, carefully choosing their targets; usually state officials who symbolized the regime. Often compromising operations rather than causing what would today be termed collateral damage. It is also called bluecalled blue on blue by the military. Volya actions inspired radicals in different places. Anarchist terrorist groups were particularly enamored by the example set by the Russian populist Volya. Nationalist groupslike the ones in the Balkans and Ireland decided to resort to terrorism to meet their goals. As the 19th century gave way to the 20th century, terrorists attacks were carried out as far as India, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire. Two US presidents and a succession of other world leaders were victims of assassination by various radical elements often affiliated to groups but operating without their explicit knowledge or support. 9 (Stern, 2001). As in Europe , terrorism arrived on American shoresalso arrived in America before the twentieth century Not only were Anarchists active in America throughoutall through the 1880s, but during the American Civil War;, had seen acts deserving of the name, committed on both sidesAnarchists as were also instrumental in the formation of the Ku Klux Klan to fight the reconstruction effort which followed. (Hoffman, 1988). Terrorism and the State Sponsored Terrorism Long before the outbreak of World War I in Europe in 1914, what would later be termed as state-sponsored terrorism had already started to manifest itself in Europe. For instance, many officials in the Serbian government and military were involved in supporting, training and providing arms to the various Balkan groups which were active prior to the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand inon 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo; an act carried out by an activist from one such group, the Young Bosnians credited with setting in progress the chain of events which led to the war itself. (Guelke, 1998). Similarly, the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (MRO) survived largely because it became for all intents and purposes a tool of the Bulgarian government, and was used mainly against Yugoslavia as well as against domestic enemies. ( Walter Laqueur )that it became for all intents and purposes a tool of the Bulgarian government, and was used mainly against Yugoslavia as well as against domesti c enemies. Such examples clearly illustrate that state-sponsored terrorism is not a new phenomenon. The events in 1930s led to a fresh wave of political assassinations which justified the word terrorism. This led to proposals at the League of Nations for conventions to prevent and punish terrorism as well as to the establishment of an international criminal court (neither of which came to being as they were overshadowed by the events which eventually led to World War II).12 (Volkan, 1997). Simultaneously, in between years of war, state terrorism increased; a reference to the oppressive measures imposed by various totalitarian regimes, particularly in Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Stalinist Russia. While terror from above, from the states ruling elite, was the predominant form of terror from Roman times through the French Revolution up to the present, even in the twentieth century, terror from above, such as the Hitlers Holocaust, Stalins purges, Pol Pots Killing Fields, the Rwandan massacres, and ethnic cleansing in Bosnia, has clearly claimed many more lives than the terror exerted from below. (Volkan, 1997). In the beginning of twentieth century, the term terrorism started to become synonymous with terror acts from below that attempt to disrupt, overthrow, or simply express rage against the existing political order. 14(Reich, 1990).Generally, academics agree that modern terrorism from below first surfaced as an identifiably notable entity with the emergence of the Narodnaya Volya (the Peoples Will) in Russia, at the close of the nineteenth century. This particular group harboured intellectual ideologies, and they believed that by creating an institution of the state, they could ferment a revolution to completely cleanse the existing system. They tried to accomplish this by terrorist acts such as assassinating numerous Tsarist officials, including, in 1881, the Tsar Alexander II himself. (Parry, 1976).Even though they possessed an enduring hatred for their victims, this group showed remorse and regret for their actions, inflicting self-torture and beatings as punishment for taking the liv es of their victims. In fact, they were so concerned, selective and meticulous about only killing their intended victim that if their target was accompanied by a family member, or if there was a danger that innocents might be killed, they would call off the attack and wait for a better situation to present itself. (Laqueur, 2001). But they continued their actions because they comprehended that, political terror is unavoidable, moral and effective and that organized terror movements are the preferred alternative to a blind, witless insurrection of dumb people. (Ivianski, 1987). More recently, other governments, such as those of military dictatorships which ruled some South American countries in recent years, or the regimes in Zimbabwe, have also been open to charges of using such methods as instruments of state. Some commentators, such as Bruce Hoffman, argue that, such usages are generally termed terror in order to distinguish that phenomenon from terrorism, which is understood to be violence committed by non-state entities. (Hoffman, 1988). However not everyone agrees that terrorism should be considered a non-governmental undertaking. For instance, Jessica Stern insists that states in deliberately bombarding civilians as a means of demoralizing enemy, states have indeed resorted to terrorism. According to Stern, such instances include not only the Allied strategic bombing campaigns of World War II, andbut the American dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that ended the Pacific phase of that conflict. (Stern, 2003). This issue remains controversial, with individuals such as the World War II British Air Chief Bomber Harris was simultaneously defended and despised for his belief in the utility and morality of strategic bombing. It bears similarity to the modern-day concept of collateral damage. Terrorism Sincesince World War II In By contrast, the predominanceprevalence of non-state groups active in the terrorism that emerged in the wake of World War II is less arguable. The immediate focus onfor such activitiesty primarily mainly shifted from Europe itself to various colonies in the continents.Across the Middle East Asia and Africa, emerging nationalist movements resisted European attempts to resume colonial business as usual after the defeat of the coalition Axis powers.As the colonialists had been recently expelled from or subjugated in their overseas empires by the Japanese, it provided psychological support to such indigenous uprisings by dispelling the myth of European invincibility. Often, these nationalist and anti-colonial groups conducted guerilla warfare, which differed from terrorism mainly in that it tended towards larger bodies of irregulars operating along more along towards military lines than their terrorist partners in the other regions.Similarly in China and Indochina, such forces conducted insurgencies against the Kuomintang regime and the French colonial government respectively. In other places, like the Algeria, campaigns were fought, in both rural and urban areas, using guerilla warfare, for independence from French rule Struggle for independence against British and French rule also took place in Kenya, Malaysia, Cyprus and Palestine. (Both the French and the British bore the brunt of this new wave of terrorism, a consequence of their large pre-war empires). These struggles were conducted by groups who can more readily be described now as terrorist. These groups quickly learned to exploit the mushrooming globalization of the worlds media. According to Hoffman: They were first to recognize the publicity value inherent in terrorism and to choreograph their violence for an audience far beyond the immediate geographical loci of their respective struggles. (Hoffman, 1988). Furthermore, in some cases (such as in Algeria, Cyprus, Kenya and Israel) terrorism perhaps helped such organizations in the successful realization of their goals. As such these nationalist and anti-colonial groups are notable for any wider understanding of terrorism. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, terrorist numbers swelledincreased to include not only nationalists, but also those motivated by ethnic and ideological considerations. Nationalists groupslike the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), and its several affiliates came into existence. Moreover, other groups mushroomed such as the Basque ETA and the Irish Republican Army (IRA). The IRA also comprised of organizations such as the Italian Red Brigade, and the Red Army faction in Germany (then West Germany). With As with the emergence of modern terrorism almost a century earlier, the United States couldwas not remain immune from this latest wave of terrorism, although there the identity-crisis-driven motivations of the white middle-class Weathermen starkly contrasted with the ghetto-bred malcontent of the Black Panther Movement. (Lacqueur, 2001). Many of the terrorist groups of this period readily adopted methods that would allow them to publicize their goals and accomplishments internationally.The Palestinians were among one of the well-known groups who pioneered the hijacking of a jet airliner as a mode of operation and publicity. One such group, Black September, staged what was (until the terrorist attack of 9/11, 2001) perhaps the greatest terrorist publicity coup then seen, with the seizure and murder of 11 Israeli athletes at the 1972 Olympic Games.Such incidents resulted in the Palestinian groups providing the inspiration, in some cases, mentorship and training, for many of the new generation of terrorists organizations. Most of these organizations today have reduced their operations or ceased to exist altogether, whileothers, such as the Palestinian, Northern Irish and Spanish Basque groups, motivated by more enduring causes, remain active today, although some of them now have made moves towards political rather than terrorist methods.Meanwhile, by the mid-1980s, state-sponsored terrorism re-emerged, the catalyst for the series of attacks against American and other Western targets in the Middle East. Countries such as Iran, Iraq, Libya and Syria came to the forefront came to be supposedly believed to be the main sponsors of terrorism as a popular belief. Falling into a related category were those countries, such as North Korea, who directly participated in covert acts of what could be described as terrorism.[xviii] (Guelke, 1998). In the recent years the re-emergence of the religiously inspired terrorist attacks are common. But the state-sponsored terrorism remains a concern of the international community today (especially its Western constituents), although it has been somewhat overshadowed. The latest manifestation of this trend began in 1979, when the revolution that transformed Iran into an Islamic republic; the West blamed Iran to use and support terrorism as a means of propagating its ideals beyond its own borders. (Hoffman, 1988). Very soon the trend had spread to places as far as Japan and the United States, and to other major world religions as well as many minor cults. Sarin gas used in Tokyo subway attack in 1995 may not have been the first breach of the psychological barrier in the use of toxic/chemical agents becausesmallpox-infected clothing was used by the Pilgrim Fathers against the indigenous tribes of North America. Also, plague-infected bodies were launched into besieged cities and used to pollute water supplies in the fourteenth century. The same year Oklahoma bombing took place in USA. At this stage, the complex mix of motivations included religion. But it was the 9/11 al Qaeda attack which made the world realize, particularly the United States, just how risky this latest transformation had become. Contemporary Terrorism At present, terrorism influences events on the international level to a degree which was not previously achieved. This was primarily the outcome of the 9/11 attacks in 2001 on the World Trade Center, which destroyed the symbolic Twin Towers; and threatened the Pentagon. It thus dented the stronghold of America. Most Americans came to believe that an unmatched era of terrorism had erupted and the world had changed forever. Some observers of the event even believed that the daring, yet tragic, events of this particular day should be considered as an epochal moment in the history of the world. (24) (Carr, 2002). Soon after 9/11, US President George Bush declared the start of a Global War on Terrorists: an open-ended war with an undefined terminal objective. In a speech to the Congress, he committed all resources at his disposal, every means of diplomacy, every tool of intelligence, every instrument of law enforcement, and every necessary weapon of war (Bertrand, S, 2003) to defeating Am ericas newest adversary in that nations first war of the twenty-first century. (26)(Mandelbaum, 2001).However, for most people in the world, terrorism was not new and these events, while spectacular and disturbing, did not constitute the dawn of a new era in terrorist activities. On the contrary, the attack became a continuous and developing reality for the world, which was present in different forms for centuries. Hence, for most of the world, terrorism was familiar and acceptable as an additional form of traditional warfare. (Henrichon, 2003). Still, for most North Americans and many other Western observers, the radical novelty of the 9/11 terrorist attacks represented a new form of terrorism for the 21st century. (Deschenes, 2003). Since then, in the United States at least, terrorism has largely been equated to the threat posed by al Qaeda, a threat inflamed not only by the spectacular and deadly nature of the 9/11 attacks themselves, but by the fear that future strikes might be even more deadly and perhaps employ weapons of mass destruction. The worldwide threat of terrorism by al Qaeda and its franchises, to a large extent remained egocentric, and were seen as the rhetoric of the US administration concerning a so-called Global War against Terrorism. This was far from unique, considering the implications that al Qaeda in fact intended to start a global revolution. For instance the general public of countries such as Colombia or Northern Ireland that had long faced terrorism was more preoccupied with when and where the next FARC REVOLUTIONARY ARMED FORCES OF COLOMBIA ( FARC or FARC-EP, is a Marxist-Leninist revolutionary guerrilla organization based in Colombia. They have fought in the ongoing Colombian Civil War for more than 40 years)or Real Irish Republican Army attacks would occur rather than where the next al Qaeda hit will descend. Thus, the above reflections indicate, terrorism goes beyond al Qaeda, which it not only predates but will also outlive. Hence if terrorism is to be tackled efficiently, any consideration of handling it must be seen beyond the threat which is presently posed by this particular organization. Consequently, without a broad-based approach, this threat of terrorism will not only be difficult to resolve, but may become uncontrollable. The Evolution of Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century Terrorism is continuously changing. While at the surface it remains the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fearit is fast becoming a major strategic tool of the opposing forces. In the twenty-first century, it has become the most predominant irregular warfare strategy. It is easily adaptable to changes in facilities available to the terrorists, in order to operate, acquire finances, and evolve new capabilities; thereby developing a different relationship with the world at large. Two major events in the first half of the twentieth century predisposed the nature of present-day conflicts. The effects of two World Wars inflamed passions and hopes of nationalists throughout the world, and severely damaged the legitimacy of the international order and governments. During the earlier decades of the twentieth century nationalism and radical political ideologies were the major developmental forces acting upon terrorism. After World War I the Treaty of Versailles redrew the map of Europe by breaking up the Austro-Hungarian Empire and thus created new nations. It recognized the rule of self-determination for nationalities and ethnic groups. The minorities and ethnicities not receiving recognition to campaign for independence or autonomy were thus encouraged. Nevertheless, in most cases self-determination was limited to European nations and ethnic groups and deprived the others, especially the colonial assets of the major European powers, creating bitterness and setting the stage for the long conflicts of the anti-colonial period. The Arab nationalists particularly felt that they were betrayed. Believing they were promised post-war independence, they were doubly disappointed: first when the French and British were given authority over their lands; and then especially when the British allowed Zionist immigration into Palestine in keeping with a promise contained in the Balfour Declaration. In the last two decades, terrorists have committed tremendously violent acts for so-called political or religious reasons. Their political ideologies range from the extreme left to the extreme right. For example, the far left can consist of groups such as Marxists and Leninists who propose a revolution of workers led by revolutionary elite. On the distant right, one finds dictatorships which typically believe in an amalgamation of state and business leadership. Consequently, all Arabs have been united in their opposition to the State of Israel and to the Western Powers, particularly the United States. The Western world feel f eels equally a sense of guilt and remorse for the treatment of the Jews during the Second World War. (Berman, 2003). Consequently, the Western powers, under the patronage of the United Nations, have championed the Israeli right to a homeland at the expense of the Palestinians. (Hoffman, 1988). On the other hand, equally important has been the growth of Wahhabism in the Arab World. The indignation of the Wahhabis was initially directed, not against Western and colonial sources, but against those practitioners of Islam whom they believed were degrading and betraying the religion from within. The Wahhabi sect became true Islamic zealots who sought to eliminate anything or anyone who failed to meet the strict standards of their belief of purity and Islamic authenticity. (Hoffman, 1988). Even though initially a creation of eighteenth century Arabian Islam, Wahhabism has flourished because of its association with the ruling parties in most Arab countries. These particular regimes were ins talled by the Western powers when the various countries were created, because these particular Arab leaders had either granted the European powers with legitimacy during their colonial rule of the region; or had supported the Allied armies during the two World Wars. Under the old Arab system, social injustice and power were limited. However, with the new structure of states, the oil wealth, and the prevalence of modern communications, the inequality gap has been widened and the discrepancies have become much more obvious.Hence, lacking any other outlet, new and growing discontents find expression in religious extremist movements (Hoffman, 1988), like the so called Islamic Fundamentalist Muslim Brotherhood and terrorist groups like Al Qaeda. In contrast, for the Palestinian movements, which had concentrated and limited their efforts in the Middle East against Israel and for the repossession and recreation of an independent Palestinian state, these new organizations have a worldwide r each. Their supporters believe that the remedy for all of the ills of modernization is to return to true Islam. This thought process, included the abolition of all laws and social borrowings from the West and the restoration of the Islamic Holy Law, the Sharia (Berman, 2003). Their aim was not only to remove the Western intruders from their homelands; they also wanted to transport their message through violent means into the heart of the Western nations, especially the hegemonic United States, their most dangerous enemies, as they see it, are the false and renegade Muslims who rule the countries of the Islamic world and who have imported and imposed infidel ways on Muslim peoples. (Lewis, 2003). In addition to the traditional terrorist groups, the nationalists, and the religious, the 1980s and 1990s also saw a growth of terrorist groups with a variety of motivations, such as narco-terrorists, eco-terrorists, anti-abortionists, and animal liberationists. Some terrorists were simply m otivated by common criminal activities. (Laqueur, 1999). Religious inspired terrorism has a universal theoretical basis. The patterns of religious violence of the Sikhs could be exactly that of Irish Catholics; or Shiite Muslims in Palestine; or a fundamentalist Christian bomber of abortion clinics in the United States. (Juergensmeyer, 2001). Special interest groups include people on the radical fringe of many legitimate causes; e.g., people who use terrorism to uphold antiabortion views, animal rights, and radical environmentalism. These groups consider that violence is morally justified to achieve their objectives. With the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the end of Cold War in the early 1990s, the features of international terrorism took on a new face. The changing geopolitical situation, following the end of the East-West conflicts, a third radical concept has evolved in the form of twentieth century terrorism. There was no Soviet Union, no Warsaw Pact, no Cold War, and no consensus on what came next. (Lacqueur, 1999). However, it was now clear that the Soviets were no longer available to provide financial support or ammunitions to terrorist organizations or to their sponsoring states. (Bell, 1999).However, instead of retreating into their own nationalistic or religious cocoons, some of these terrorist groups adapted and evolved into truly global transnational organizations. As a result, counter terrorist organizations are not confronting a specific state, nor are they confined to their old norms of understanding and operations. In addition, todays terrorist groups are very well-financed. (Kushner, 1998). Such transnational groups no longer rely on handouts from sponsoring states, but, instead, have developed exceptional methods of gaining and handling their financial resources. Today robbery and ransom are replaced by high-tech criminal businesses, such as growing drugs; fine processing and distribution operations; and, finally, money laundering through legitimate businesses. (Combs, 2003). The modern terrorist is also very well-trained and well-educated. They have not only learnt from their past experiences, but also from military and criminal training methods, and integrated them into their own training programs. The former independence and isolation of many terrorist groups has given way to complex, multilayered, transnational organizational structur es, resembling the corporate hierarchy of a multinational corporation. Lastly and most significantly, todays terrorist groups are said to have access to the knowledge of highly sensitive destructive weapons; and have the ability to use Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs), such as chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear weaponry, although use of this type of armaments is still abhorrent to many terrorists. (Schweitzer, 1998). The use of terror has, throughout history, been known as an effective technique to achieve political, criminal, religious and ideological aims. The underlying objective to use the terror was aptly captured by the fourth century BC Chinese strategist, Sun Tzu, kill one, frighten ten thousand. The Anatomy of Terror (Sinclair, 2003) indicates that history is replete with examples of the use of terror in the pursuit of religious aims (e.g. the massacres by the Crusaders); material aims (e.g. the Stranglers of Southern India who terrorized road travellers, and the Mafia); quasi-moral, and ideological aims (e.g. General Bedfords supremacist Ku Klux Klan and the Shining Path); state and political aims (e.g. the Tzarist Okrhana and the Nazi Geheime Staatspolizei); and in the current context, religio-political aims (e.g. Al Qaeda and Hamas). Terror is easier to define than terrorism. Over 100 definitions of terrorism have been evolved. Sinclair gave interesting examples of the early use of biological and chemical agents as means of inducing fear and terror. These include the use of poison gas by the Spartans during the siege of Plataea in 428 BC; the use of smallpox infected materials by the Pilgrim Fathers from England to conquer the indigenous population